Authors: Nohlen
Summary: In nearly 2400 words the entry traces pluralism's development from the late 19th century. Distinguished are a normative conception of pluralism, that argues against authoritative political state structures, and a methodological conception, that stresses the need to analyze the plurality of political and social interest groups for a realistic understanding of political outcomes. Pluralism as both an analytic concept and a political programme is traced back to German and Anglo-Saxon philosophy and writing on constitutional law around the turn of the century. The idea of a multiverse' developed by the American philosopher W. James is seen as very influential on the continent. The discussion highlights how theoretical arguments influenced political movements pushing for recognition and influence (for example by interest groups such as churches and trade unions) and vice versa, leading to ever more radical challenges to states' claim for sovereignty (for example by H. Laski in Britain). Political sociological analysis strengthened the movement by establishing that political decision-making processes are determined by conflict and compromise between a plurality of social forces. Emphasis on the descriptive aspect of pluralism is attributed to American behavioral research in group theory focusing on the analysis of bargaining processes in the political system (D. Truman, E. Latham, R.A. Dahl). In Germany, on the other hand, pluralism as a normative idea was revitalized in the form of neo-pluralism after the fascist period. Central to the foundation of the Bundesrepublik became the idea that social interests should have the right and autonomy to organize themselves as well as that they should have influence on politics as long as socially accepted and legally codified rules of conflict behavior are observed (E. Fraenkel). The entry ends with a discussion of more radical social- and socialist concepts of pluralism developed both in Europe and the United States.