Authors: Nohlen
Summary: In approximately 1300 words the entry defines revolution as a lasting, radical change in the political and social structure and distinguishes forms of revolution by the main actors initiating the changes and by the aspect of social life most directly undergoing dramatic changes. While the term originally was used in astronomy, since the glorious revolution' of 1688 in England the term has been used to describe far reaching changes of conditions within a country. The entry distinguishes between political, social, technical, cultural, artistic, and scientific revolutions, which are initiated by distinct groups such as the bourgeoisie (middle-class), peasants, members of the proletariat, intellectuals or managers. Examples of political and social revolutions initiated by the middle class are the Dutch (16th century), English (17th century), and the American and French revolutions in the 18th century, which all attempted to institutionalize the principles of freedom and equality. The entry argues that while judicial equality was achieved these historical examples did not automatically lead to economic equality of all classes, Marx and his followers developed strategies for a proletarian revolution to finally establish true equality. The goal was not only to change the political order within society, but to change society as such. It was Friedrich Engels who introduced the term industrial revolution to describe the fundamental changes in production methods leading to new forms of social conditions. Industrial states have reacted to these changes by introducing welfare policies, thereby preventing proletarian revolutions. The entry argues that in retrospect the development of modern philosophy and natural sciences constituted a scientific revolution, since basic Aristotelic principles were abandoned and men was now seen as the master of nature. A second one followed when physicists began to investigate sub-atomic structures. Lately arguments have been put forward for a scientific revolution that prevents further environmental destruction and reintroduces men into the ecological system. The entry ends arguing that revolutions should be viewed as a complex process affecting all aspects of society, even if they begin as mainly social, political or scientific revolutions: scientific advances have in this view social and political consequences and vice versa.